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Compiled from his Encyclopedia of Printing, Photographic, and Photomechanical Processes. Words in small caps refer to index items in the Encyclopedia. Numbers in square brackets [ ] refer to the page number in the Encyclopedia where more information and sources can be found. "a" refers to the left column and "b" refers to the right column. Items followed by * refer to articles that will be covered in Vol. 3 or in a new edition. Numbers between ( ) refer to the abbreviation section of Vol. 2 (pp. cccix-cccxxi) and Vol. 3.
Important: This chronology is still in progress and is far from complete. THE AUTHOR INVITES CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS WHICH CAN BE SENT TO HIS MAILING ADDRRESS ABOVE OR TO: nadeaul@nbnet.nb.ca
# YEAR COMMENTS
-- ---- --------
#1 100BC RUBBINGS. [102a] To disseminate engraved
inscriptions on stone tables or rocks, the
Chinese used a simple ink and a thin
absorbent paper rubbed against an
inscription.
#2 1714 Henry Mills "ARTIFICIAL MACHINE". [78a]
Engl. Pat. of 1714. We have not found this
patent yet.
#3 1780 James Watt Pat. [78a] GLUTINOUS INK pressed
against paper with screw press.
#4 1805-1950s Writing with aniline ink (often methyl blue)
transferable to a gelatin pad from which
several copies could be made. Known as
ANILIN PROCESS; CHROMOGRAPH; COPYGRAPH
[1884]; GELATIN METHOD [124a]; HECTOGRAPH
[124a]; INDIRECT METHOD [124a]; POLYGRAPH
[396b].
#5 1806 Carbon paper. See CARBONATED PAPER in
Encyclopedia [78a].
#6 1839 BREYERTYPE [49a], brought into practical use
much later as PLAYERTYPE and MANUL PROCESS
(ca 1922), followed by the Typon PROCESS
(1927). These belong to categories known as
REFLECTOGRAPHY, REFLEX COPYING PROCESS and
REFLEXION COPYING PROCESS. Two U.S. brand
names were DEXIGRAPH* and LINAGRAPH*. See
1896 PLAYERTYPE, for description.
#7 1839 Photography, e.g., DAGUERREOTYPE, SALT
PRINT, CALOTYPE.
#8 1841-1890s ANASTATIC PROCESS OF LITHOGRAPHY. [31a]
Invented in Germany and in England in 1844.
Used for FACSIMILE reproductions. A print
soaked in dilute nitric acid was applied
firmly onto a sheet of zinc, allowing the
acid to etch the metal where the ink of the
print did not prevent it. After more
etching, the plate was ready to be inked up
with a roller and provide many impressions.
#9 1842 Herschel's BLUEPRINT PROCESS, [47b] little
used in North America until ca 1876. This
uses the sensitivity of ferric salts reduced
by the action of light to a ferrous state,
resulting in the precipitation of Prussian
blue (ferric-ferrocyanide) by the action of
potassium ferrocyanide. This process
provides white lines on a blue background.
See 1877 PELLET PROCESS.
#10 1854 AUTOGRAPHIC PROCESS. [39b] Early application
of lithography.
#11 1864 ANILINE PROCESS of W. Willis. [32, 415b] A
dichromated paper was exposed under a
positive and subjected to the fumes of
aniline, by which means aniline colors were
formed. For twenty years the process was
used with little competition other than that
of the BLUEPRINT (1876) and PELLET (1877)
processes.
#12 1876 BLUEPRINT paper popular in North America.
[47b] Possibly of earlier date, e.g. 1840's.
#13 1877 PELLET PROCESS. [360a] Much like Herschel's
BLUEPRINT, except that it was a positive
from positive process that gave blue lines
on a white background.
#14 1878 COLLOGRAPHY. [72b] Invented in England by A.
Pumphrey. A film of gelatin on glass was
dichromated and dried. Writing or drawing
was done on a suitable paper with solutions
or iron salts, nutgalls, or similar
substances. This tanned the gelatin surface,
to which the design was next transferred. By
keeping the gelatin pad moist and applying
an ink roller, the lines would take the
greasy ink, but the white parts would repel
it. Paper was then brought into contact with
the pad, and an impression taken by rubbing
or squeegeeing. See 1891 AUTOCOPYIST.
#15 1880s FERRO-GALLIC PROCESS [106a]. Very popular
overseas, around 1880s, although more
complicated than ordinary blueprint. Paper
coated with an emulsion of ferric chloride
and tartaric acid, with gum arabic or
gelatin, was developed in a solution of
gallic acid after exposure under a tracing.
Another version of this process included the
gallic acid in the emulsion so development
simply required plain water. Ferro-gallic
paper gives black lines on a white
background. Also known as COLAS' PROCESS.
#16 1880s? PAPYROGRAPHY. [358b] A special type of ink
was used to write upon a specially prepared
paper. The sheet was then soaked in water,
and the ink corroded the fabric of the wet
paper, leaving open lines in place of the
writing. The sheet was then used as a
STENCIL.
#17 1880s? POROTYPE. [397b] A bleach-out process used
on continental Europe for the reproduction
of engravings. It depended on the fact that
the ink lines were practically impervious to
a certain gas as compared with the paper. A
paper coated with a chemical pigment that
could be bleached by the gas was pressed
into contact with the engraving, and the
back of the latter subjected to the gaseous
fumes, which were obstructed by the lines of
the picture; these therefore remained
pigmented in the copy, while the unprotected
ground was bleached.
#18 1880s? EDISON ELECTRIC PEN. [453b] This produced a
STENCIL made by the aid of a style
containing a fine needle which was moved up
and down by a small motor at the top of the
pen. This created a series of minute holes
that produced a stencil which could be used
to provide more than 500 copies.
#19 1883, ca TRYPOGRAPH. [453b] Similar to the
CYCLOSTYLE, except that the paper was
stretched over a metal plate that had a
multitude of sharp corrugations, which
pierced the paper as a style was moved over
them. The paper then could be used as a
STENCIL.
#20 1883 CYCLOSTYLE. [81b] A special type of paper
was stretched over a smooth metal plate. The
writing instrument held a small wheel having
a serrated edge, perforating the paper with
minute cut lines, creating a STENCIL. Later
replaced by NEOSTYLE, ca 1920s?
#21 1884, ca COPYGRAPH*. A type of HECTOGRAPH. (OED2, V.
3, 917). See 1805-1950s.
#22 1884, ca POLYGRAPH. [396b] Writing with aniline ink
transferable to a gelatin pad from which
several copies could be made. Also known as
ANILIN PROCESS; CHROMOGRAPH; GELATIN METHOD
[124a]; HECTOGRAPH [124a]; INDIRECT METHOD
[124a]; POLYGRAPH [396b]. See 1805-1950s.
#23 1887 MIMEOGRAPH (STENCIL). [333b; 435a] Invented
by T.A. Edison and marketed by A.B. Dick of
Chicago.
#24 1888, ca ANTHRACOTYPE [33a, 415b] A DIRECT CARBON
process mostly used as a REPRODUCTION
PROCESS FOR MAPS, PLANS, ETC.
#25 1889-today VANDYKE process. [460a] An IRON-SILVER
system that produces white lines on a brown
background. Also known as BROWNPRINT, SOLAR
PAPER, SILVER PAPER.
#26 1891 AUTOCOPYIST. [39a] An improved version of
COLLOGRAPHY (1878) which made use of a
matrix made of parchment stretched over a
bed-plate. The printing was made by an
ordinary letter-copying press. By 1891, the
French designed "Autocopiste" was popular in
the U.S.A.
#27 1896 PLAYERTYPE. [390a] A REFLEX COPYING PROCESS,
also referred to as REFLECTOGRAPHY, in which
a silver gelatin paper was placed face down
on the printed matter, pressed into contact
and exposed through the back of the silver
paper. The light through the paper was
reflected back from the white surface of the
letter, plan, or drawing, whereas the dark
lines of the latter hardly reflected any
light at all. On development, a negative
copy was obtained. See 1839 BREYERTYPE.
#28 1900-1950s TRUE-TO SCALE [453]. Originally, an ink made
with a ferric salt was used to insolubilize
a gelatin pad which was then used as a
printing matrix. The process was improved by
the use of a blueprint paper as a matrix
which could produce about twenty five pulls.
Originally from France, the process was
licensed to a number of users in 1904,
including five in Germany. Details of the
procedure became widely known in 1910 and
the process quickly became in widespread use
for the REPRODUCTION OF MAPS, PLANS, ETC.
#29 1909-today PHOTOSTAT. [382b] A camera that used
photographic (silver) paper instead of film.
Originally, the copy was negative, i.e.,
white text on black background, unless
rephotographed to obtain black text on a
white background. In 1953 Eastman Kodak Co.
introduced a DIRECT POSITIVE paper, KODAK
PHOTOSTAT POSITIVE W PAPER, which offered
black text on white background.
#30 1920s DIAZOTYPE. [86a] First process to seriously
compete with the BLUEPRINT, which it
replaced by the 1950s for the REPRODUCTION
OF MAPS, PLANS, ETC. Also known as
WHITEPRINT; AMMONIA PRINT; B&W; GAS-PRINT;
3M DRY DIAZO.
#31 1920s SPIRIT DUPLICATING. [433b] The master copy
was a negative made by typing or writing on
a sheet of nonabsorbent paper backed with a
carbon containing dye. Copies were made by
moistening the sheets of paper with the
volatile fluid and bringing them into direct
contact, under pressure, with the negative
impression of the master copy. The master
sheet was a rotary drum. With each rotation
of the drum the moisture on the copy sheet
dissolved a very small fraction or layer of
the dye on the master copy. This produced
positive results--usually of purple
color--on the copy sheet. (EA5 74b-74d).
#32 1920s? NEOSTYLE*. STENCIL process for handwriting
and typewriting that replaced CYCLOSTYLE.
Thousands of copies could be made in one
hour using an "indestructible" paper
stencil. (JDGA 182).
#33 1922, ca MANUL process. [325a] A variation of the
PLAYERTYPE (1896) that used dichromated
gelatin to make facsimile reproductions of
bound books without taking them apart. See
1927 TYPON.
#34 1927 TYPON process. [455b] A variation of the
PLAYERTYPE (1896) that used silver gelatin
materials to make facsimile reproductions of
bound books without taking them apart. See
1922, ca MANUL.
#35 1938 XEROGRAPHY invented, but not commercialized
before 1948 and not popular before 1960
[475a]
#36 1947 KODAGRAPH AUTOPOSITIVE PAPER. A silver
process that gave a direct positive image
with a single development operation. Widely
used as a REPRODUCTION PROCESS FOR MAPS,
PLANS, ETC.--for the final print and as an
intermediate. The paper could be handled in
bright room light and could be used in the
same equipment as for diazo or blueprint
papers, provided a yellow filter was
employed.
#37 1948 KODAGRAPH AUTOPOSITIVE FILM. A silver
process, coated on a translucent film
support that permitted erasures and
additions in ink or pencil to the photo on
the support side. Because of its
transparency, the film allowed considerably
faster travel on DIAZO and BLUE-PRINT
exposing equipment than did KODAGRAPH
AUTOPOSITIVE PAPER (1947).
#38 1948 XEROGRAPHY is commercially introduced.
[475a] Its basic principle was invented in
1938 and became popular after 1960. One
source (SPGI 134) says that the first Xerox
copier was tested during 1949 and came on
the market one year later.
#39 1948, ca DUOSTAT*, introduced by Kodak Ltd. (U.K.)
and apparently not available in U.S. A
SILVER PROCESS. A type of STABILIZATION
process involving a porous plate, on which
the exposed paper was placed, and the
application of a developer and stabilizing
solution by means of a viscose sponge.
Subsequently, stabilization processing was
reduced to a single operation by the use of
a single-solution developer-stabilizer.
(MDPEF 251)
#40 1949 DIFFUSION TRANSFER. [87a] Agfa's Copyrapid;
Geveart's Gevacopy (1950); Kodak's Verifax
(1952-1976); Copyproof (1980s?); DT was
widespread in various countries by 1960.
Other products not specifically intended as
copying processes, which used similar
technology include PMT; Kodak Ektaflex
(1981); Polaroid, sepia (1948), id., black
and white (1950), id., color (1963).
#41 1949-50 KODAGRAPH REPRO-NEGATIVE PAPER. A low-speed
negative material (SILVER PROCESS) that
could be used in drawing-reproduction
equipment in well-lighted rooms.
#42 1950 THERMOGRAPHY. [446a] The process used
heat-sensitive paper, exposed to infrared
radiation by the REFLEX method. The process
was not suitable for many dye images that
did not reflect infrared radiations (see
1896 PLAYERTYPE). The basic principle was
discovered in 1939 but was not put on the
market before 1950 by 3M Company under the
name 3M Thermo-Fax [446a].
#43 1950s? KODAK REFLEX COPY PAPER, Type 1075. Could be
used in subdued room light.
#44 1952-1976 Kodak VERIFAX. [461a], based on a DIFFUSION
TRANSFER invention by Yutzy and Yackel in
1947. Could produce prints by reflectography
on plain, uncoated paper stock, with overall
brown cast. Readyprint* was a different
brand using the same technology. See 1896
PLAYERTYPE.
#45 1953 CARBONLESS PAPER* Transfer, chemical type,
produced by Appleton Coated Paper for NCR.
(NHPR 413a). This often produced a purple
image. Mostly used for multiple-copy
business forms.
#46 1953-today(1989) KODAK PHOTOSTAT POSITIVE W PAPER and
KODAGRAPH PROJECTION POSITIVE PAPER were
introduced for limited use, primarily for
copying waybills for railway and steamship
companies. See 1909 PHOTOSTAT.
#47 1954-today ELECTROFAX. [97b] Direct electrostatic on a
support coated with zinc oxide developed
with a liquid or dry toner. (NHPR 333b,
494).
#48 1955-today(1991) STABILIZATION PROCESS. [434a] A SILVER
PROCESS first shown in the DUOSTAT (1948,
ca) but not popular before significant
improvements were made. See 1956 RETROFLEX.
#49 1956 RETROFLEX* SILVER PROCESS. Announced by
Kodak Pathe, used stabilization processing
and produced a positive in room light
without plumbing and washing equipment. The
copy was placed under the translucent
support of the Retroflex paper and exposed
through the back of the original document.
The definition was not so good as that
obtained in emulsion-to-emulsion contact,
but was satisfactory. (MDPEF 251).
#50 1950s (late) COLOR TONERS for ELECTROFAX and Haloid Corp.
Xerox (7 colors).
#51 1958 ELECTROLYTIC PROCESS for 3M Filmac line of
microfilm reader-printers
#52 1960 XEROGRAPHY (ELECTROPHOTOGRAPHY) becomes
popular. [475a] Invented in 1938 and
introduced commercially in 1948.
#53 1960s? VQC* (3M, VARIABLE QUALITY COPIER).
#54 1960s EICHNER DRYCOPY PROCESS*. A variant form of
thermographic copying. See 1950
THERMOGRAPHY.
#55 1960s DUAL SPECTRUM PROCESS*. A dry process in
which the energy coming from the visible
part of the electromagnetic spectrum forms a
latent image, which is made visible by the
invisible radiant energy of the infrared
region of the spectrum. Was marketed by 3M.
#56 1960s ADHEROGRAPHY*, a duplicating process
developed by 3M. Images were formed by the
adherence of powder to a tacky latent image
created by the effect of infrared heat. This
provided a master from which 200 to 250
copies could be made. The powder image of
the resulting print was fused to the paper
by heat.
#57 1963 CARBONLESS* "Action" paper introduced by 3M
(NHPR 414b). By 1974 there were 16 major
producers of carbonless paper worldwide.
#58 1964 THERMALLY PROCESSED SILVER (TPS) film,
commonly referred to as "dry silver", was
first commercialized by 3M Company in the
mid 1960s with the introduction of microfilm
reader-printers. [446a] TPS films and papers
are now common in many areas once limited to
wet electrostatic and silver halide
technologies.
#59 1965 3M ELECTROCOLOR PRINT. [448a] Not
commercialized.
#60 1968 COLOR-IN-COLOR*, first full color copier,
introduced by 3M. A direct electrostatic
process coupled with a thermal dye transfer
system. Bright images on a velvety or glossy
surface. Details suppressed.
#61 1968, ca THERMOGRAPHIC WASH-OFF FILM* Geveart-Agfa
Transparex film for overhead transparencies
and Thermoline Wash-Off Film for
REPRODUCTION OF MAPS, PLANS, ETC (PTICR
58-60)
#62 1973 XEROX 6500 Color Copier. Bright images with
plenty of sharp details.
#63 1980s Color copiers from Canon, etc.
#64 1980s? COPYPROOF. [87b] (1949 DIFFUSION TRANSFER).
Mostly for graphic arts applications.
COLOR GUIDE INDEX
(not complete)
TEXT OR LINES BACKGROUND NOTE
black white See most processes
black bluish See 1954-today
ELECTROFAX
black brown See 1952-1976 Kodak
VERIFAX
blue, methyl (anilin) white See 1805s-1950s
blue (solid) white See 1877 PELLET
blue white See 1920s DIAZOTYPE
brown white (or now brownish) text may have been black
originally
purple white or colored See 1920s SPIRIT
DUPLICATING
purple white See 1953 CARBONLESS
PAPER
white black See 1909 PHOTOSTAT
white blue See 1842 BLUEPRINT
white brown See 1889 VANDYKE BROWN
yellow white or yellowish text may have been black
originally
various colors white Various. See 1950s (late) color
toners for ELECTROFAX.
Haloid Co. (later Xerox)
introduced 7 colors;
1968 COLOR-IN-COLOR;
1973 XEROX Color Copier
PAPER TYPE GUIDE
(not complete)
PLAIN, UNCOATED PAPER STOCK. This includes most processes. See below
for processes that require(d) coated paper stock.
SPECIALLY COATED PAPER STOCK. This includes
1889-today VANDYKE process
1896 PLAYERTYPE
1909-today PHOTOSTAT
1920s DIAZOTYPE
1947 KODAGRAPH AUTOPOSITIVE PAPER
1948 DUOSTAT
1949 DIFFUSION TRANSFER
1949-1950 KODAGRAPH REPRO-NEGATIVE PAPER
1950 THERMOGRAPHY
1950s? KODAK REFLEX COPY PAPER
1953-today KODAK PHOTOSTAT POSITIVE W PAPER and
KODAGRAPH PROJECTION POSITIVE PAPER???
1955-today STABILIZATION PROCESS
1956 RETROFLEX
ELECTROLYTIC Filmac
1960s ELECTROFAX
1960s? VQC*???
1964 THERMALLY PROCESSED SILVER (TPS; dry silver) paper
1960s DUAL SPECTRUM PROCESS*
1965 3M ELECTROCOLOR PRINT
TENDENCY OF COPIES TO CURL
(not complete)
LOW. Most processes.
NOTICEABLE.
1947 KODAGRAPH AUTOPOSITIVE PAPER
1952-1976 KODAK VERIFAX
READYPRINT
1949 DIFFUSION TRANSFER
1950 THERMOGRAPHY
1954-today ELECTROFAX
1920s DIAZOTYPE (if paper is thin)
1960s DUAL SPECTRUM PROCESS
PRONOUNCED
1958 ELECTROLYTIC PROCESS
Also some of the above mentioned processes if used
with a thin stock.
SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.
Soft images, slightly out of focus: May indicate the use of a
process that did not use an emulsion-to-emulsion contact in order to
provide right way around reading material. Ex.: 1956, RETROFLEX.
Soft images may also indicate that the document is a second or third
generation copy.
Index
Note: Numbers following # refer to paragraph numbers in the chronology
above.
A
A.B. Dick #23
Action paper, carbonless, 3M #57
adherography, 3M #56
Agfa's Copyrapid #40
ammonia print #30
anastatic process of lithography #8
anilin process #4, #22
Aniline process (Willis) #11
Appleton Coated Paper #45
artificial machine #2
Autocopiste #26
autocopyist #26
autographic process #10
Autopositive Film, Kodagraph #37
Autopositive Paper, Kodak #36
B
B&W #30
black lines on a white background #15
black text on white background #29
bleach-out process #17
blueprint #11, #13
blueprint popular #12
blueprint process #9
blueprint, compete against #30
Breyertype #6
brown cast #44
brownprint #25
C
calotype #7
carbon paper #5
carbonated paper #5
carbonless paper #45, #57
chromograph #4, #22
Colas' process #15
collography #14, #26
color copier from 3M #60
color copier from Canon #63
color copier from Xerox #62
color copier, first #60
color toners for Electrofax #50
Color-in-Color, 3M #60
copygraph #4, #21
Copyproof #40, #64
Copyrapid, Agfa #40
cyclostyle #19, #20, #32
D
daguerreotype #7
Dexigraph #6
diazotype #30
diffusion transfer #40
diffusion transfer invention, Verifax #44
direct carbon #24
direct electrostatic on a support coated with zinc oxide
#47
direct positive image with a single development opera-
tion #36
direct positive paper #29
dry silver, thermally processed silver #58
Dual Spectrum process, 3M #55
duostat #48
Duostat, Kodak Ltd #39
dye transfer, thermal system #60
E
Edison electric pen #18
Edison, T.A. #23
Eichner drycopy process #54
Ektaflex, Kodak #40
electric pen, Edison #18
Electrocolor print, 3M Co. #59
Electrofax #47
Electrofax, color toners for #50
electrolytic process, 3M Co. #51
electrophotography, xerography #52
F
facsimile reproductions #8
facsimile reproductions of bound books #33
facsimile reproductions of bound books without taking
them apart #34
ferro-gallic process #15
G
gas-print #30
gelatin method #4, #22
Gevacopy, Geveart's #40
Geveart's Gevacopy #40
Geveart-Agfa Transparex film, wash off #61
glutinous ink #3
H
hectograph #4, #21, #22
Herschel #9, #13
I
indirect method #4, #22
iron-silver system #25
K
Kodagraph Autopositive Film #37
Kodagraph Autopositive Paper #36
Kodagraph Projection Positive Paper #46
Kodagraph Repro-Negative Paper #41
Kodak Ektaflex #40
Kodak Path Retroflex #49
Kodak Photostat Positive W Paper #29, #46
Kodak Reflex Copy Paper, Type 1075 #43
Kodak Verifax #44
L
Linagraph #6
lithography #10
M
Manul process #6, #33
methyl blue #4
microfilm reader-printers #58
mimeograph #23
N
NCR, carbonless paper #45
neostyle #20, #32
P
papyrography #16
Pellet #11
Pellet process #13
pen, electric #18
photography #7
photostat #29
Photostat Positive W Paper #46
plain, uncoated paper stock, Verifax #44
playertype #6, #27
playertype, variation of #33, #34
PMT #40
Polaroid, sepia #40
polygraph #4, #22
porotype #17
porous plate #39
positive from positive process #13
Pumphrey, A. #14
purple color #31
R
Readyprint, diffusion transfer #44
reflectography #6, #27, #44
reflex copying process #6, #27
reflex method #42
reflexion copying process #6
reproduction of maps, plans, etc #28
Retroflex #49
rubbings #1
S
salt print #7
silver paper #25
solar paper #25
spirit duplicating #31
stabilization process #39, #48
stencil #16, #18, #19, #20, #23
stencil, neostyle #32
T
thermal dye transfer system #60
thermally processed silver (TPS) #58
Thermo-Fax, 3M Co. #42
thermographic wash-off #61
thermography #42
Thermoline Wash Off Film #61
3M Company Dry silver #58
3M Company, Thermo-Fax #42
3M Dry Diazo #30
3M Dual Spectrum #55
3M Electrocolor #59
3M Filmac line of microfilm reader-printers #51
3M VQC #53
3M, Color-in-Color #60
TPS (thermally processed silver) #58
True-to scale #28
trypograph #19
Typon #6
Typon process #34
V
vandyke process #25
Variable Quality Copier #53
Verifax, Kodak #40, #44
VQC #53
W
wash-off Film, thermographic #61
white lines on a brown background #25
white text on black background #29
whiteprint #30
X
xerography commercialized #38
xerography invented #35
xerography popular #52
Xerox 6500 Color Copier #62
Y
Yackel #44
Yutzy #44
Z
zinc oxide coated #47